Edema disease in pigs

Edema disease is a peracute toxemia caused by specific pathotypes of Escherichia coli that affects primarily healthy, rapidly growing nursery pigs. Other names for edema disease include “gut edema” or “bowel edema,” due to the prominent edema of the submucosa of the stomach and mesocolon.
Etiology and Pathogenesis:
Edema disease is caused by hemolytic E coli that produce F18 pili and Shiga toxin 2e (also known as verotoxin 2e). The F18 pili have 2 antigenic variants, F18ab and F18ac, with F18ab being characteristic of edema disease strains and F18ac being associated primarily with enterotoxigenic E coli . The Shiga toxin-producing E coli implicated in edema disease most commonly belong to 4 specific serotypes: O138:K81:NM, O139:K12:H1, O141:K85a,b:H4, and O141:K85ac:H4.
Pigs become infected initially by contaminated environment or the sow. Spread of infection among penmates is facilitated by the large numbers of pathogenic E coli that are shed by colonized pigs. Some strains of E coli that cause edema disease also carry genes for enterotoxins and can cause diarrhea as well as edema disease. Ingestion of edema disease strains of E coli is followed by colonization of the intestine in pigs in which intestinal epithelial cells carry receptors for the F18 pili. Expression of the receptors is age-related, so younger pigs are less susceptible to colonization than older pigs. Furthermore, some pigs carry a specific mutation in a gene required for expression of the receptors and are thereby resistant to infection. Resistance/susceptibility is determined by a single locus with a dominant susceptibility allele and a recessive resistant allele; it is possible to select resistant pigs, which can be identified by a simple PCR test that identifies presence or absence of the specific mutation.
High-protein diets have increased the susceptibility of pigs to the disease. Factors associated with weaning, including the stresses of mixing pigs, changes in diet, and the loss of milk antibodies from the intestine, appear to be important elements in enhancing the susceptibility of weaned pigs to the disease.
Shiga toxin 2e produced in the intestine of colonized pigs is responsible for the major clinical signs and pathology that are observed. This cytotoxin inhibits protein synthesis, leading to cell death. The toxin is absorbed from the intestine and targets vascular endothelium in specific sites believed to have high concentrations of the toxin receptor globotetraosyl ceramide. These sites include the submucosa of the stomach, the colonic mesentery, the subcutaneous tissues of the forehead and eyelids, the larynx, and the brain. Damage to vascular endothelium results in edema, hemorrhage, intravascular coagulation, and microthrombosis.
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Clinical Findings and Lesions:
Clinical signs range from peracute death with no signs of illness to CNS involvement with ataxia, paralysis, and recumbency. Edema disease usually occurs 1-2 wk after weaning and typically involves the healthiest animals in a group. The disease is seen occasionally in nursing pigs or in adult pigs. The average morbidity is 30-40%, and the mortality among affected pigs is often as high as 90%. Periocular edema, swelling of the forehead and submandibular regions, dyspnea, and anorexia are common. Edema disease is primarily a disease of the vasculature, and gross lesions consist of subcutaneous edema and edema in the submucosa of the stomach, particularly in the glandular cardiac region. The edema fluid is usually gelatinous and may extend into the mesocolon. The edema may be accompanied by hemorrhage. Fibrin strands may be found in the peritoneal cavity, and serous fluid may be found in both the pleural and peritoneal cavities. Microscopically, a degenerative angiopathy affecting arteries and arterioles and necrosis of the smooth muscle cells in the tunica media are present. Lesions of focal encephalomalacia in the brain stem are characteristic and thought to result from vascular damage, leading to edema and ischemia.
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Diagnosis:
The clinical history of peracute death in healthy, well-conditioned, recently weaned pigs, along with visual observation of periocular edema and extensive edema of the stomach and mesocolon, are helpful in diagnosis. There may be a characteristic squeal due to edema of the larynx. Diarrhea may precede the signs of edema disease if the E coli responsible also possesses genes for enterotoxins. Characteristically, the stomach is full of dry feed. Diagnosis is easily made in an outbreak in which the full range of clinical signs and pathologic features are likely to occur. It is more difficult when only a few animals are affected or when the disease occurs in an atypical age group. Isolation and characterization of the E coli are needed for a definitive diagnosis. Culture of the small intestine and colon typically yields a heavy growth of hemolytic E coli , but in some cases the organism may no longer be present in the intestine at the time of death. Demonstration that the hemolytic E coli isolated is an edema disease strain may be done by PCR amplification of the genes for the F18 pili and Shiga toxin 2e. Serotyping of the isolate is useful for tracking the persistence of a particular type of the organism on a farm. However, the F18 pili are not readily expressed in vitro and they may not be detected on organisms that are cultured routinely.
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Treatment and Control:
Because the onset of disease is often sudden and the course rapid, treatment is often ineffective. Oral medication via the drinking water may be used to protect clinically unaffected pigs in a herd in which cases of the disease have been detected. Antibiotic sensitivity should be determined on the isolate from an affected pig; medication should be changed if the initial choice was ineffective. Control is also difficult. Several experimental approaches have been shown to be effective, but none are economical to date. These methods include feeding a high fiber and low protein diet, reducing the amount of feed given to weaned pigs, vaccination by a systemic route with a Shiga toxin 2e toxoid, oral vaccination with an F18+ nontoxigenic E coli , passive systemic immunization with antitoxin, and passive oral immunization with anti-F18 antibodies.

importance of water to rabbit

WATER
The importance of adequate water intake cannot be overstated. A rabbit who does not drink sufficient water will gradually begin to suffer desiccation of the intestinal contents. Skin tenting, a common method used by veterinarians to gauge the state of hydration in many animals, is not a good gauge of hydration in rabbits. It seems that even when the tissues of the rabbit appear to be well-hydrated, the intestinal contents may not be, perhaps because the rabbit is so efficient at sequestering necessary fluids from its own intestine. When this happens, the ingested food in the stomach and intestine becomes dry and difficult for the normal muscular motions to push through. This can start a downhill cascade into a condition known as ileus, which can be life-threatening if not recognized and treated.

A rabbit will usually drink more water from a clean, heavy crock than from a sipper bottle. The rabbit caregiver may wish to provide both, but it's important to be sure that the crock, if porcelain, is lead free, and that the water is changed daily and the crock washed thoroughly with hot water and detergent to prevent bacterial growth in the water source.

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